眾律國際法律事務所

Introduction:

Language: Spanish

Capital: La Paz. ( admn capital), Sucre ( constitutional capital).

Area: 1,098,581 km2

Population: 11,410,651 (2015)

Currency: Boliviano (BOB)

Religion: Roman Catholics (78%), protestant (19%), other (3%).

Geographical situation: is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru.

International treaty membership:

Introduction:

Language: Portuguese

Capital: Brazilia

Area: 8,515,767 km2

Population: 207,350,000 (2017)

Currency: Real (BRL)

Religion: Roman Catholicism (64%), Protestantism (22%), other religion (3%)

Geographical situation: Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 kilometers. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area.

Introduction:

Language: Spanish

Capital: Quito

Area: 283,560 km²

Population: 16,144,000 (2015)

Currency: United state dollar (USD)

Religion: Roman Catholics (74%), protestant (11%)

Geographical situation: in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

Introduction:

Language: Spanish

Capital: Bogota

Area: 1,141,748 km2

Population: 49,210,124 (2017)

Currency: Peso (COP)

Religion: Roman Catholics (70%), protestant (16%)

Geographical situation: In Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Introduction:

Language: Spanish

Capital: Panama City

Area: 74,177.3 km2

Population: 4,058,374 (2016)

Currency: United state dollar (USD), Balboa (PAB)

Religion: Roman Catholics (70%), Protestant (15%)

Geographical situation: It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia (in South America) to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south.

International treaty membership:

Introduction:

Language: Spanish

Capital: San Jose

Area: 51,100 km2

Population: 4,586,353 (2011)

Currency: Costa Rican colon (CRC)

Religions: Roman Catholicism

Geographical situation: is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island.

International treaty membership:

Introduction:

Language: Dutch    

Capital: Amsterdam

Area: 41 543 km²

Population: 16,94 millions (2015)

Currency: Euro

Religion: Roman Catholics (11%), Protestant Church (8.6%), Islam (5.5%)

Geographical situation: in Western Europe with three island territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing maritime borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Germany.

International treaty membership:

本文接續解析司法院大法官釋字第 747 號（一）

伍、本案爭點

人民的土地如果未經徵收，而實際已遭公路穿越地下，超過個人社會責任所應忍受的範圍，卻未得到補償，是否可以請求需用土地人向主管機關申請徵收地上權？

陸、解釋文及解釋理由重點摘錄

一、本案客體（即修正前之土地徵收條例第11條（以下稱「系爭規定一」）、土地徵收條例第57條第1項（以下稱「系爭規定二」）未就土地所有權人得請求需用土地人向主管機關申請徵收地上權有所規定，與上開意旨不符。有關機關應自本解釋公布之日起一年內，基於本解釋意旨，修正土地徵收條例妥為規定。

二、聲請人雖僅主張系爭規定一有牴觸憲法疑義，然因系爭規定二規定設有徵收地上權之相關規定，相關聯且有必要將其納為整體評價之對象。

三、憲法上財產權保障之範圍，不限於人民對財產之所有權遭國家剝奪之情形。國家機關依法行使公權力致人民之財產遭受損失（諸如所有權喪失、價值或使用效益減損等），若逾其社會責任所應忍受之範圍，形成個人之特別犧牲者，國家應予以合理補償，方符憲法第15 條規定人民財產權應予保障之意旨（本院釋字第 440 號解釋參照）。

四、國家因公益必要所興辦事業之設施如已實際穿越私人土地之上空或地下，致逾越所有權人社會責任所應忍受範圍，形成個人之特別犧牲，卻未予補償，屬對人民財產權之既成侵害，自應賦予人民主動請求徵收以獲補償之權利。

五、整體觀察系爭規定一及二，對於土地遭公路等設施穿越但尚未達於不能為相當使用之程度的情形，其所有權人無從請求需用土地人向主管機關申請徵收地上權，與憲法保障財產權意旨不符。

六、土地所有權人申請徵收地上權的請求權，其時效期間屬立法裁量，惟應合理規定自權利人知悉受侵害時起算的短期時效，以及至遲自穿越工程完工之日起算的長期時效。另應一併檢討修正土地徵收條例第 57 條第 2 項的時效規定。

壹、釋憲背景事實

釋憲聲請人有二，一為指南宮，另一為南宮建設開發股份有限公司，（以下通稱「聲請人」）聲請人以交通部臺灣區國道高速公路局（下稱「高公局」）興建北部第二高速公路木柵隧道，未經其同意，穿越其投資興建之指南宮地藏王寶殿附設靈灰堂暨停車場空間新設工程所在土地之地下，影響其土地開發安全及利用，向高公局請求協議價購及辦理徵收，被拒絕，聲請人不服，提起訴願遭不受理，提起行政訴訟，經臺北高等行政法院以99年度訴字第2427號判決駁回，又經最高行政法院101年度判字第465號判決，以上訴為無理由而駁回上訴確定。聲請人認為公路法、土地徵收條例第11條及78年11月6日府工二字第373130號臺北市都市計畫說明書參、二等，有牴觸憲法疑義，向司法院聲請解釋憲法並聲請變更釋字第400號解釋。

貳、審查客體

一、修正前土地徵收條例第 11 條：「需用土地人申請徵收土地……前，應先與所有人協議價購或以其他方式取得；所有人拒絕參與協議或經開會未能達成協議者，始得依本條例申請徵收。」

二、土地徵收條例第 57 條第 1 項：「需用土地人因興辦第 3 條規定之事業，需穿越私有土地之上空或地下，得就需用之空間範圍協議取得地上權，協議不成時，準用徵收規定取得地上權。……」

參、聲請人之主張

需用土地人（即高公局）因興辦土地徵收條例第 3 條規定之事業（即北部第二高速公路木柵隧道），未經聲請人同意，逕行穿越私有土地之地下，影響其土地開發安全及利用，逾越聲請人社會責任所應忍受範圍，形成個人之特別犧牲，惟人民的財產權因公益需要而形成其個人特別犧牲，國家應對該特別犧牲予以補償[1]，現行法制下有諸多補償規定，如水土保持法第20、21條、森林法第30、31條，公路法、土地徵收條例竟未賦予人民請求徵收或補償之權利，顯有差別對待，以平等原則作為本案違憲審查的基準。[2]

肆、理節錄最高行政法院101年度判字第465號判決認上訴為無理由而駁回上訴確定之理由

一、需用土地人於向內政部申請徵收前，與所有權人的協議及向內政部申請辦理徵收，乃係為發動內政部作成徵收處分之內部行政行為。從而原判決認上訴人（即聲請人）應依行政訴訟法第8條提起公法上一般給付訴訟請求救濟，而非提起課予義務訴訟，依法自無違誤。

Introduction:

Language: German

Capital: Berlin

Area: 357,168 km2

Population: 82,175,700 (2015)

Currency: Euro

Religions: Roman Catholicism (29%), Evangelical Church (27%), Islam (5.5%)

Geographical situation: in central-western Europe, with Denmark bordering to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria to the southeast, Switzerland to the south-southwest, France, Luxembourg and Belgium lie to the west, and the Netherlands to the northwest.

Introduction:

Language: Tajik.

Capital: Dushanbe

Area: 143,100 km2

Population: 8,610,000 (2015)

Currency: Somoni (TJS)

Religion: Muslim (98%), other (2%) : Russian Orthodoxy, Protestantism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.

Geographical situation: Tajikistan is landlocked, and is the smallest nation in Central Asia by area.

Introduction:

Language: Kyrgyz (national), Russian (official).

Capital: Bishkek               

Area: 199,951 km2

Population: 6,019,480

Currency: Som (KGS)

Religion: Islam, Russian Orthodoxy.

Geographical position: Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, bordering Kazakhstan, China, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

Introduction:

Language: Kazakh

Capital: Astana

Area: 2,724,900 km2

Population: 18,050,488 hab.

Currency: Tenge (KZT)

Religion: Muslim (70%), Christian (26%), Buddhist (0.1%), Irreligious (3%), Other (0.9%).

Kazakhstan shares borders with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, and also adjoins a large part of the Caspian Sea.

MONGOLIA TRADEMARK LAW SYSTEM :

Introduction:

Langue: Mongol

Capital: Ulaanbaatar

Area: 1,566,000 km²

Population: 3,081,677

Currency: Tögrög (MNT)

Introduction:

Language: Czech

Capital: Prague

Area: 78,866 km2

Population: 10,553,948 (2015)

Currency: Czech koruna (CZK)

Religion: Non religious (86%), Roman Catholics (10%)

Geographical situation: is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast.

Introduction:

Language: Polish

Capital: Warsaw     

Area: 312,679 km2

Population: 38,454,576 (2016)

Currency: Zloty (PLN)

Religion: Roman Catholics (87%)

Geographical situation: in Central Europe, bordered by Germany, Belarus, Russia, Czech Rep., Slovakia, Lithuania and Ukraine.

International treaty membership:

Introduction:

Language: Lithuanian

Capital: Vilnius

Area: 65,300km2

Population: 2,831,670 (2017)

Currency: Euro

Religion: roman Catholic (77%)

Geographical situation: is a country in Northern Europe. One of the three Baltic states, it is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, to the east of Sweden and Denmark. It is bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and Kaliningrad Oblast (a Russian exclave) to the southwest.

Introduction:

Language: Latvian

Capital: Riga

Area: 64,589 km2

Population: 1,953,200 (2016)

Currency: Euro

Religion: Lutheranism (34%), Roman Catholicism (24%), Russian Orthodox (17%)

Geographical Situation: in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, one of the three Baltic states. It is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, and Belarus to the southeast, as well as a maritime border to the west alongside Sweden.

Introduction:

Language: Estonian

Capital: Tallinn

Area: 45,339 km2

Population: 1,317,797(2017)

Currency: Euro

Religion: Christians

Geographical situation: is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Lake Peipus and Russia.

Intellectual Property system in France:

You will find in this article a summary of the Intellectual Property system in France, who can register, where, when and what can be registered.

Who can register right for Intellectual Property? :

A patent can be registered by both physical and legal person. The applicant can go through a warrant to do the application, in France, this person can be:

• A lawyer or a person who has the patent mention.
• A person recognized by INPI, they are registered on a special list.
• A person in European Union who is empowered to act before IP office
• A company who has a contractual relation with the company asking for the protection.

The warrant has to be designated by the applicant, and has to provide a power of attorney.